. Introduction. Introductory Works.
The concept of organizational culture was first noted as early as the Hawthorne studies (Mayo, 1933; Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939), which described work group culture. It was not until the early 1980s, however, that the topic came into its own. Several books on organizational culture were published, including Terrence Deal and Allan Kennedy. PDF On Dec 1, 2012, David Borys published Organisational Culture Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate. Kennedy (1982, p. Also popular is Uttal’s 1983. (e.g., Kotter and Heskett, 1992; Peters and Waterman, 1982; Deal and Kennedy, 1982). In particular, the performance benefits of a strong corporate culture are thought to derive from three consequences of having widely shared and strongly held norms and values: enhanced. Respect for the impact of corporate culture was echoed by Deal and Kennedy (1982) who declared, 'Strong culture has almost always been the driving force behind continuing success in American business' (p. Kilmann (1985) concurred that corporate culture was becoming recognized as more powerful in American business than any one person, strategy. Deal and Kennedy defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. They measured organizations in respect of:. Feedback: Quick feedback means an instant response.This could be in monetary terms, but could also be seen in other ways, such as the impact of.
General Overviews. Textbooks and Edited Volumes. Approaches. Functionalist.
Interpretive. Role in Organizational Life. As an Independent Variable. As a Dependent Variable. As a Moderator. Analysis. Quantitative.
Qualitative. Mixed Methods. Related Concepts. Climate. Context.
Nationality. Identity. Personality. Production.
The Dark Side. Disciplinary Influences. Emerging Approaches. Cultural Entrepreneurship. Culture as a Tool Kit. Other Emerging Approaches.
IntroductionThe concept of organizational culture was introduced to the field of management and organization studies in the late 1970s, and it began to attract significant scholarly attention in the early to mid-1980s. Building on insights from sociology and anthropology, organizational scholars argued that organizations could possess distinct cultures, or sets of shared values, beliefs, and norms that guide the attitudes and actions of organizational members. Researchers suggested that organizational culture could significantly affect organizational outcomes, reasoning that culture could be used as a resource to affect employee actions, distinguish firms from one another, and create competitive advantage for those with superior cultures. As such, understanding organizational culture has traditionally been seen as an avenue for equipping business leaders with the tools needed to enable effective performance through the creation and management of an appropriate culture. Although early studies of organizational culture generally portrayed it as consistent among employees, across levels and between departments, subsequent work spoke to the possibility of heterogeneous manifestations of culture within a single organization, suggesting that the creation and maintenance of a desired organizational culture may be more complex and nuanced than initially understood. As such, theoretical paradigms and research methods used for inquiry in this area have been diverse. For example, while some scholars have studied culture from a functionalist standpoint, focusing on normative forces promoting homogeneity and uniformity, others have approached it from an interpretive paradigm, emphasizing the meanings that social actions have for individuals in organizations.
Methodologically, studies have employed both qualitative and quantitative methods, each of which has yielded unique insights on some aspects of culture. As a result, researchers in management and organization have taken a range of approaches to understanding organizational culture, from exploring the forces that may create and change culture, to studying it as a driver of performance and effectiveness, to linking it with identity and employee personality. The readings here reflect this diversity in theoretical and methodological approaches and are organized as follows. The first sections provide an introduction to organizational culture, including introductory works, early contributions, overviews, and textbooks. Next, major paradigmatic approaches are reviewed, and the roles of culture in organizational life, as independent variable, dependent variable, and moderator, are discussed. Then, methodological approaches are reviewed, investigating culture and related concepts. Finally, disciplinary influences and emerging approaches are discussed.
Introductory WorksAndrew Pettigrew is widely credited with introducing the concept of organizational culture to the field with his 1979 article “On Studying Organizational Cultures.” offered insights on concepts and processes associated with organizational culture, which he equated with the birth of organizations; he described culture as an amalgam of beliefs, identity, ritual, and myth—a conceptualization still widely used today. The following year, raised questions around the applicability of American management theory abroad and studied those cultural differences that interface with and influence organizational cultural characteristics. Studied culture as the manner in which things “get done” in an organization, offering a model of culture based on four organizational prototypes. Subsequently, a foundational volume, discusses an organization’s culture as the basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared consistently across members of an organization and define taken-for-granted views of the organization and its environment. Importantly, Schein stressed the role of the leader as the creator and maintainer of culture within organizations. Offered a more concise, peer-reviewed version of the arguments put forth in. Organizational culture scholars have long recognized divergences between functionalist and interpretive approaches to research in this area.
Offered an introduction to modes of analysis of culture; Smircich positioned the development of the concept of organizational culture at the intersection of functionalist work in anthropology and research in organization theory and predicted the emergence of a range of scholarly perspectives. Offered one such perspective as she examined organizational culture from an interpretive paradigm; Martin highlighted three prototypes of cultures that may exist in organizations, thereby contrasting the functionalist approach of. Also shed light on paradigmatic disagreement in the study of culture in organizations as they proposed a multiparadigm approach to research to promote interplay between the functionalist and interpretive paradigms. The above conceptualizations of and approaches to understanding culture continue to underpin and influence contemporary research on culture as well as practical attempts to manage culture in organizations.Deal, Terrence E., and Alan A. Corporate Cultures. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.Describes organizational culture using four prototypes: work-hard, play-hard culture; tough-guy macho culture; process culture; and bet-the-company culture.Hofstede, Geert. Culture’s Consequences.
Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE, 2001.An international perspective on organizations that questions the universality of American management theory and suggests four dimensions of culture that vary based on nationality and that affect organizational culture and employees. First edition published in 1980.Martin, Joanne. Cultures in Organizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.An introduction to organizational culture from the interpretive paradigm that uses three case studies of the same organization to illustrate the plurality of understandings and experiences of culture. Suggests that organizational culture may be integrated, fragmented, or differentiated.Pettigrew, Andrew M.
“On Studying Organizational Cultures.” Administrative Science Quarterly 24.4 (1979): 570–581.DOI:Widely agreed to be the field’s first publication regarding organizational culture. Characterizes culture as publicly and widely accepted meaning systems, and positions the creation of culture as the birth of an organization.Schein, Edgar H.
Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.A book for use by both academics and practitioners that defines organizational culture from a functionalist point of view and focuses on the role of the leader in creating, changing and enacting organizational culture. Provides one of the most widely cited and used conceptions of culture available in the field today.Schein, Edgar H. “Organizational Culture.” American Psychologist 45.2 (1990): 109–119.DOI:A more concise work than that offers Schein’s highly influential definition of culture, provides a brief history of the study of culture in organizations, and presents case materials to illustrate how to analyze culture and how to think about culture change.Schultz, Majken, and Mary Jo Hatch. “Living with Multiple Paradigms: The Case of Paradigm Interplay in Organizational Culture Studies.” Academy of Management Review 21.2 (1996): 529–557.Presents a new strategy for multiparadigm research that promotes interplay between functionalist and interpretive paradigms.Smircich, Linda. “Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis.” Administrative Science Quarterly 28.3 (1983): 339–358.DOI:Examines the significance of the concept of culture for organizational analysis and demonstrates that the concept of culture can take organization analysis in several different and promising directions.Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content onthis page. Please subscribe.
Deal and Kennedy defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. They measured organizations in respect of:
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• Feedback : Quick feedback means an instant response. This could be in monetary terms, but could also be seen in other ways, such as the impact of a great save in a soccer match.
• Risk : Represents the degree of uncertainty in the organization's activities.
Using these parameters, they were able to suggest four classifications of organizational culture:
• The Tough-Guy Macho Culture. Feedback is quick and the rewards are high. This often applies to fast moving financial activities such as brokerage, but could also apply to a police force, or athletes competing in team sports. This can be a very stressful culture in which to operate.
• The Work Hard/Play Hard Culture is characterized by few risks being taken, all with rapid feedback. This is typical in large organizations, which strive for high quality customer service. It is often characterized by team meetings, jargon and buzzwords.
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• The Bet your Company Culture, where big stakes decisions are taken, but it may be years before the results are known. Typically, these might involve development or exploration projects, which take years to come to fruition, such as oil prospecting or military aviation.
• The Process Culture occurs in organizations where there is little or no feedback. People become bogged down with how things are done not with what is to be achieved. This is often associated with bureaucracies. While it is easy to criticize these cultures for being overly cautious or bogged down in red tape, they do produce consistent results, which is ideal in, for example, public services.
Charles Handy (1985) popularized the 1972 work of Roger Harrison of looking at culture which some scholars have used to link organizational structure to organizational culture. He describes Harrison's four types thus:
• A Power Culture which concentrates power among a few. Control radiates from the center like a web. Power Cultures have few rules and little bureaucracy; swift decisions can ensue.
• In a Role Culture, people have clearly delegated authorities within a highly defined structure. Typically, these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies. Power derives from a person's position and little scope exists for expert power.
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• By contrast, in a Task Culture, teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power derives from expertise as long as a team requires expertise. These cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines of a matrix structure.
• A Person Culture exists where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. Survival can become difficult for such organizations, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue the organizational goals. Some professional partnerships can operate as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm.
Edgar Schein an MIT Sloan School of Management professor, defines organizational culture as:
'A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems'.
According to Schein, culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. His organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the observer, described by three cognitive levels of organizational culture.
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At the first and most cursory level of Schein's model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observer. Included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress and how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders.
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The next level deals with the professed culture of an organization's members. At this level, company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds are often expressed and local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. Organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organization's membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership.
At the third and deepest level, the organization's tacit assumptions are found. These are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. Additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. Many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. Those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members cannot draw out these attributes--rather much more in-depth means is required to first identify then understand organizational culture at this level. Notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists.
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Using Schein's model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. For instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of Schein's model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different. This insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would-be change agents begin their actions. Merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change.